The genre of still life painting came to full bloom in the seventeenth-century Netherlands. Before this time, artists had painted inanimate objects such as fruit or flowers arranged in an aesthetically pleasing manner on a table, but not to such an extent as in the Protestant Lower Countries where those paintings were flowing off the shelves.
The name of this type of painting, 'still life,' first appeared halfway through the seventeenth century in Dutch inventories as still even. The term itself is pretty paradoxical as it combines two words that seem to be opposites: still implies motionlessness while life implies aliveness and vitality. Seemingly inanimate objects are usually rendered naturalistically. Artists mastered the painting of surface structures or light and shade to such a degree that the beholder is often tricked into believing that they can take the depicted bread roll from the canvas and have a bite.
The Dutch, who were heavily collecting and commissioning these paintings to decorate their luxurious townhouses, however, used specific terms for different types of still life objects in the composition such as fruitage (fruit piece), ontbijt (breakfast) and bancket (banquet).
Still life Objects Symbolism and its Significance
Dutch Still Life paintings, however, are not only paintings of pretty food or flowers; each depicted object usually has a complex meaning. During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, the objects allegorized Christ, the Virgin Mary, the crucifixion, and other Christian morals. So let's have a closer look at different types of symbols used on the canvas to teach the often well-educated viewer a moral lesson:
Meal platters, fruits, and vegetables set on backdrops of velvets and silks gained popularity during the early seventeenth century. These serene arrangements usually reflected spirituality and each of its elements had a sophisticated symbolic meaning:
- Berries like cherries and strawberries were reflections of the souls of men and were considered the fruits of paradise.
- The presence of bread on a canvas indicated the body of Christ.
- Milk was considered a noble liquid, and its inclusion was a proud testament to local production. The bright pricey lemons demonstrated the deceptive beauty of carnality.
- Pomegranates were associated with resurrection, immortality, and fertility.
- While lobsters meant underscoring the dark side of wealth, oysters implied an explicit spirit of temptation.
- Fruit in general, and exotic fruit like pineapple or pomegranates in particular, symbolized extravagant splendor and the wealth of the patron of the painting.
One artist who specialized in still life objects such as fruits was Balthasar van der Ast. Many of his works are on view at the Mauritshuis in The Hague. His earliest work shows quinces on a porcelain plate surrounded by pomegranates, apricots, and grapes. Moreover, pearls, shells, an apple, a butterfly, and a tulip have been arranged in the foreground.
Over time, the sizes of the canvases began to change: heavy draped curtains appeared, and delicious dishes were represented, complemented with lively fruits and delicate glassware. The landscape format became popular to fit everything on the canvas.
Floral Symbolism
During the seventeenth century, the elaborate symbolism of individual flowers in Dutch still life painting became a national passion in the Protestant Netherlands.
- The rose was symbolic of love, the Virgin Mary or Venus.
- The lily stood for purity, and the sunflower denoted divine love and devotion.
- The delicate violet symbolizes modesty and the poppy death and laziness.
- Flowers such as Crown Imperials, cultivated tulips, and hyacinths were exclusive collectibles brought into homes for a short period as luxury items.
Unsurprisingly, during the so-called 'tulip mania' in the Netherlands, where prices for a single tulip bulb sky-rocketed, the tulip was amongst the most popular flowers to be included in Dutch still life paintings and was a symbol of virtue and nobility. Interestingly, the lavish bouquets captured on canvas rarely included wildflowers, as cultivated flowers were much more fashionable then.
At the beginning of the seventeenth century, Ambrosius Bosschaert the Elder and his pupils dominated floral still life painting. The first floral still lifes were usually arranged symmetrically along a vertical axis. Usually, single, vividly colored flowers were set against a dark background or rich fabric. Jacques de Gheyn II was another artist who focussed on painting floral still lifes during the early decades of the seventeenth century.
During the seventeenth century, the artists Willem van Aelst and Otto Marseus van Schrieck pushed the boundaries of this genre further by playing with compositions and arrangements. Their paintings offered a more natural and realistic approach as their flowers and trees displayed different states. Some famous tree paintings and flowers were shown in full bloom, whereas others were already wilted and defoliated. That floral still life painting also attracted the big names can be seen in Jan Brueghel's The Sense of Smell, painted in 1617-18 and on display at the Museo del Prado in Madrid, where he included depictions of hundreds of different flowers.
Animal still life was another sub genre of still life painting and usually included either alive or dead animals, particularly those of cats and dogs. Famous cat paintings, such as those of Rembrandt and Frans Hals, often depict cats as symbols of wit and cunning. Similarly, famous dog paintings, such as those of George Stubbs, often portray dogs as symbols of loyalty and trustworthiness. Hunting still lifes were very popular as they were a great testament to their owner's wealth. These colossal life-sized portrayals of shot animals were initially painted by Wilem van Aelst, who rendered furs, feathers, and flesh so illusionistically that one might already feel it beneath one's fingers.
Often alive creatures were included in other types of still lifes:
- Ants implied hard work;
- Dragonflies and monkeys were indicative of the devil;
- Parrots were associated with eloquence;
- Peacocks were often associated with immortality.
Memento Mori Symbolism
Memento Mori symbolism is an integral part of Dutch still life. The term originates from Latin and means' remember you must die.' The sole aim of memento mori is to remind the viewer of their mortality and the fragility of human life. The most typical memento mori is a skull that appears regularly throughout the history of still life painting.
A Vanitas still life is a close relative of the memento mori paintings. Vanitas still life objects convey that all materialism is a façade and futile. They symbolized the uncertainty of life and the certainty of death. The term is from the opening lines of the Book of Ecclesiastes in the Bible, "Vanity of vanities, saith the Preacher, vanity of vanities, all is vanity."
The vanity of life is usually symbolized through objects that convey a sense of impermanence. A broken watch, for example, might represent the sudden stopping of time and hence death; the hourglass stands for the unstoppable passing of time; the violin refers to the beauty of music which disappears within seconds and cannot be grasped, and the flame of a candle is blown out as quickly as the flame of life is extinguished.
Notable artists in this genre were Pieter Claesz and Willem Heda in Haarlem, and David Bally, along with his pupils, in the Dutch city of Leiden.
Object Symbolism
Besides animals, flowers, and different types of food, objects of all kinds can be found in Dutch still life paintings. They range from mirrors, seashells, instruments, glassware, porcelain, books, and scientific instruments.
- Glassware in Dutch still life objects indicated the fragility of existence.
- Luxury items like gold and silver tableware implied tension between sumptuous goods and morality.
- Seashells set against a dark backdrop symbolizes femininity, birth, and good fortune. These objects often appeared in compositions of lavish banquet spreads.
- The mirror emanated the reflection of an individual's soul, while the presence of a broken one implied a bad omen.
"Still Life with Gilt Goblet" (1635) by Willem Claeszoon Heda, "Still Life with Fruit and Crystal Vase" (1652) by Willem van Aelst and Still Life with Chinese Bowl and Nautilus" (1662) by Willem Kalf are some outstanding examples. The wealth of the artist's patron influenced the quality of objects included in a still life painting. Over time it became fashionable to include items from the colonies in distant lands, such as Chinese porcelain or carved ivory.
The Art and the Market
The economic situation of the seventeenth century directly influenced still life painting. With economic growth, the middle class got more prosperous, and they wanted to display their wealth through their splendid art collections. Still-life paintings became the popular choice due to their elegance and the versatility of the genre, which over time broadened to confectionery still lives, the game still lives, flower still lives, and many more. Still lifes were popular until the middle of the seventeenth century.
The market for still life grew significantly from the early to the mid-seventeenth century. Post the mid-seventeenth century, two factors led to the decline of this art form. First, the 'disaster year of 1672'. The threat of an acute war resulted in fiscal setbacks that significantly impacted the art industry as paintings were deemed to be an item of luxury and not a necessity. Secondly, over-production also contributed to the decline. The art market slowly diminished due to a flood of second-hand copies. In addition, authentic art lost its value as art by old artist names reappeared in the market.
Conclusion
The genre of Dutch still life during the 17th Century has captivated viewers for centuries. The way artists painted food, flowers, objects, and animals so realistic that we feel like we can reach out to them and feel their surface with our fingers never ceases to create a sense of wonder.
But besides this, all elements of a still life have a complex symbolic meaning which can only be deciphered by a well-read beholder. On a more general level, the central theme of still life paintings is the duality of life and stillness. They are subtle reminders of the fragility of every being's existence.